Russia. Boltishev, Victor The Artwork of Victor Boltishev. Some original art of the Napoleonic Wars by a Russian artist. Gingerich, Jonathan Russian Infantry Facings – Inspection Era. This article describes the facings of the Russian infantry during the inspection period from until the introduction of divisions at the start of Key Contacts: Office of Admissions Low Library, MC West th Street New York, NY gsas-admissions [at] blogger.com () Before contacting the GSAS Office of Admissions, please first read our Frequently Asked Questions page. Faculty contacts for each program may be viewed by following the links below Dissertation submission is not complete until all documents have been received and accepted. Overall Formatting. The entire document should be checked after all revisions, and before submitting online, to spot any inconsistencies or PDF conversion glitches
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A doctorate from Latin docere"to teach" or doctor's degree from Latin doctor"teacher" or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities, dissertation russia, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi "licence dissertation russia teach".
In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the dissertation russia field or work in a specific profession. There dissertation russia a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy PhDawarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines.
In the United States and some other countries, there are also some types of technical or professional degrees that include "doctor's" in their name and are classified as a doctorate in some of those countries. Professional doctorates historically came about to meet the needs of practitioners in a variety of disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, dissertation russia, either for dissertation russia work or other contributions to the university or society.
The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate Latin: doctoratus appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin licentia docendi at a university. The right to grant dissertation russia licentia docendi i. the doctorate was originally reserved to the Catholic churchwhich dissertation russia the applicant to pass a test take an oath of allegianceand pay a fee.
The Third Council of the Lateran of guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. In the right was granted by the pope to the University of Pariswhere it became a universal license to teach licentia ubique docendi.
George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate. The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century likely c. Still, it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning: "love of wisdom".
The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, dissertation russia, [14] abbreviated as Dr. similar to Ph.
in Anglo-American countries. Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in dissertation russia and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. and law Dr. University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations.
Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were dissertation russia, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men.
The first women dissertation russia be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in at Lyons [15] or maybe Avignog she "defended theses" in oralthough dissertation russia that she received a doctorate in canon law in have been discredited[ citation needed ] Elena Cornaro Piscopia in at the University of PaduaLaura Bassi in at Bologna UniversityDorothea Erxleben in at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in at Complutense UniversityMadrid. The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations.
For instance, dissertation russia, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held dissertation russia, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation increased the doctorate's importance.
Today, a research doctorate PhD or its equivalent as defined in the US by the NSF is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. However, many recipients do not work in academia, dissertation russia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward.
The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the M. at Kings College now Columbia University after the medical school's founding in It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine M. rather than a dissertation russia degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until As the standard qualifying degree in medicine,the MD gave that profession the ability through the American Medical Associationestablished in for this purpose to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice, dissertation russia.
In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US inat Yale University. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, dissertation russia, first introduced at Durham University in The first titled a DPhil was awarded at the Dissertation russia of Oxford.
Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor J. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws LLB until the s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, dissertation russia, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it like the MD was not equivalent to the PhD, dissertation russia criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate ' ".
Still, dissertation russia, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with dissertation russia taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must dissertation russia themselves to be leading experts in their subjects.
These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis a second book or a portfolio of research publications, dissertation russia. The habilitation highest available degree demonstrates independent and thorough research, dissertation russia in teaching and lecturing, and, dissertation russia, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding.
The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, dissertation russia, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor. Since the Middle Agesthe number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another.
While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", dissertation russia, the use of the title varies widely, depending on the type and the associated occupation. Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a peer-reviewed academic dissertation russia. The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking worldis Doctor of Philosophy abbreviated Ph.
Dissertation russia the U. or DSocSci [29]Doctor of Management D. the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium Dr. and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum Dr. The UK Doctor of Medicine MD or MD Res and Doctor of Dental Surgery DDS are research doctorates.
or ThD [29]Doctor of Practical Theology DPT [29] and the Doctor of Sacred Theology S. are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertationor as a portfolio of shorter project reports thesis by publication.
The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, dissertation russia, internal, and external examiners. It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination called viva voce in the UK and India by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally ranging from corrections in grammar to additional researchor denies the degree.
Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the U. and the U. However, elsewhere, e. in Finland and many other European countries, dissertation russia, a master's degree is required.
The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from dissertation russia years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more.
Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, dissertation russia, and a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral dissertation russia and the doctoral degree PhD as a four-year qualification. In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree dissertation russia to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree.
While other licences such as the Licence in Canon Law are at the level of master's degrees. A higher tier of research doctorates may be dissertation russia based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science DSc and Doctor of Letters DLitt degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia.
The École Saint-Thomas-d'Aquin of the Université catholique de Louvainfor instance, has offered the opportunity for students who had already earned a doctorate to earn the degree of Maître Agrégé M.
Magister Aggregatus. The habilitation teaching dissertation russia facultas docendi or "faculty to teach" under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in GermanyAustriaFrance dissertation russia, LiechtensteinDissertation russiaPolandetc. The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation.
In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendivenia legendi. Sincethe honorary title of "Privatdozent" before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant. In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendiLatin for "the permission to lecture," or ius docendi"the right to teach," a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime, dissertation russia.
The French academic system dissertation russia to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" doctorat d'État, dissertation russia.
Still, it was superseded by the habilitation habilitation à diriger des recherches"accreditation to supervise research", dissertation russia, abbreviated HDR in Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
Depending on the country, professional doctorates may either be research degrees at the same level as PhDs. The relationship between research and practice is considered important or professional degrees with little or no research content aimed at professional performance.
Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", [29] or may use the more generic titles dissertation russia Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", [29] " Doctor of Professional Studies " DPS [47] [48] or "Doctor of Professional Practice" DPP. In the US, professional doctorates formally "doctor's degree — professional practice" in government classifications are defined by the US Department of Education 's National Center for Educational Statistics.
These degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline.
However, individual programs may have different requirements. In contrast to the US, dissertation russia, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees.
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A doctorate (from Latin docere, "to teach") or doctor's degree (from Latin doctor, "teacher") or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession Russia. Boltishev, Victor The Artwork of Victor Boltishev. Some original art of the Napoleonic Wars by a Russian artist. Gingerich, Jonathan Russian Infantry Facings – Inspection Era. This article describes the facings of the Russian infantry during the inspection period from until the introduction of divisions at the start of Key Contacts: Office of Admissions Low Library, MC West th Street New York, NY gsas-admissions [at] blogger.com () Before contacting the GSAS Office of Admissions, please first read our Frequently Asked Questions page. Faculty contacts for each program may be viewed by following the links below
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